Let’s not get physical, physical • 1
While the shift from selling products to enabling outcomes – often referred to as servitization – is far from new, it remains a powerful framework for manufacturing companies and digital-first startups looking to embrace customer-centric, service-dominant business models. In this series of blog posts, I have refreshed vintage content with repackaged principles and new examples to help leaders, innovators, and designers transform customer offerings and experiences for the future.
Eight ways to wrap supplementary services around physical and digital products:
Access > Ownership. Enabling access to assets and resources without the burdens of ownership.
Solutions > Products. Delivering holistic, outcome-focused solutions that address the broader needs of customers.
Individualization > Standardization.Tailoring content, products, services, and experiences to meet the unique needs of customers.
Journeys > Transactions. Empowering customers in their value creation process across every moment and touchpoint.
Inclusion > Exclusion. Removing barriers that prevent individuals and groups from engaging with products and brands.
Members > Users. Building vibrant, connected communities around shared interests, practices, and products.
Circularity > Linearity. Adopting circular business models and practices to reduce environmental impact and drive systemic change.
Resonance > Relevance. Crafting deeply pleasurable, meaningful, and transformative moments and journeys.
Note: These strategic principles are not mutually exclusive or collectively exhaustive (MECE), which is intentional. Think of them as lenses through which to explore opportunities to transform customer offerings and experiences – an approach that proves highly effective in ideation sessions.
1. Access > Ownership
Updated May 30, 2026
The Access Over Ownership principle is about empowering B2B and B2C customers to experience, utilize, and benefit from assets and resources without the burdens and costs associated with ownership. The focus shifts from standalone products to integrated product-service systems, from selling ‘things’ to enabling customer outcomes over time, from discrete transactions to continuous, long-term relationships, and from linear take-make-dispose models to circularity and collaborative consumption. (Based on Bau, 2006, 2010, 2011, 2014, 2015; Wirtz & Lovelock, 2016; Botsman & Rogers, 2010; Buczynski, 2013; Jégou & Manzini, 2008; and Gassman et al., 2014.)
Note: In this context, assets refer to physical items (vehicles, machinery, real estate, etc.) and digital assets (software, data, digital content, etc.). Resources encompass these assets along with intangible elements such as expertise, time, and network access. In outcome-driven innovation, resources are tools or means that enable customers to perform tasks, ‘get the job done,’ and achieve their desired outcomes.
While XaaS (Anything-as-a-Service) is a widely recognised expression of the Access Over Ownership principle, this blog post explores 10 distinct service models that all prioritize access over ownership.
Service models
The B2C2C peer-to-peer sharing model. Empowers individuals to share their own assets and resources – such as homes, cars, tools, or skills – with others in exchange for a fee, or for free in a bartering system where goods or services are exchanged directly. In this setup, enabling platforms typically serve as intermediaries, connecting users, managing transactions, and fostering a sense of community.
Examples: Turo allows car owners rent out their personal vehicles to others through its car-sharing marketplace (2010–present). TaskRabbit connects individuals seeking help with everyday tasks – like home repairs, furniture assembly, and cleaning – to skilled local freelancers, known as Taskers (2008–present). Community-based micro-initiatives – such as bicycle self-repair workshops, family-run micro-nurseries, and home laundry services – facilitate the exchange of skills, services, and resources among community members (Jégou & Manzini, 2008).
The B2B peer-to-peer sharing model. Enables businesses to share their own assets and resources – including vehicles, facilities, equipment, tools, and even manpower – with other businesses for a fee. Platforms play a crucial role by facilitating connections, managing transactions, and fostering collaboration, networking, and knowledge sharing.
Examples: Floow2 enables businesses share equipment, office space, and even staff with other companies (2012–present). LiquidSpace allows businesses to rent out unused office space to other companies, freelancers, or startups on a short-term basis (2010–present). Cohealo helps healthcare facilities share medical equipment with other institutions, optimizing the utilization of costly resources (2013–present).
The B2C service model for ongoing access. Provides individuals and groups with the right to use high-value assets and resources over a defined period – ranging from days to years – through rental, leasing, or subscription arrangements. Distinct from on-demand access, it emphasises continuity and reliability, typically supported by services such as delivery, onboarding, and support to maximise value and minimise disruption.
Examples: Rent the Runway enables customers to rent designer clothing and accessories for a specific period, returning them after use (2009–present). Netflix provides subscribers access to a vast library of movies and TV shows without the need for ownership (2007–present). Blue Apron provides subscribers with ongoing access to curated meal kits delivered on a weekly basis, combining ingredients, recipes, and guidance to support consistent home cooking without the need for meal planning (2012–present).
The B2B service model for ongoing access. Grants businesses the right to use high-value assets and resources over a defined period through rental, leasing, or subscription arrangements. This ongoing access is typically complemented by value-added services – such as delivery, setup, installation, training, maintenance, optimisation, and expert support – designed to boost productivity and maximise value-in-use.
Examples: Salesforce provides businesses with subscription-based access to its CRM software, offering ongoing updates, support, and customization options to enhance user productivity (1999–present). WeWork enables companies to lease flexible office spaces bundled with services such as high-speed internet, cleaning, and community events to create a collaborative and professional environment (2010–present). Hilti Tool Fleet Management provides businesses with ongoing access to professional tools through a subscription model, bundling maintenance, repair, replacement, and support to ensure reliability and maximise productivity (2001–present). Cisco Systems offers businesses the option to lease networking equipment, which includes setup, maintenance, and ongoing expert support to maximize operational efficiency (1984–present).
The B2C/B2B service model for on-demand access. Enables customers to use assets and resources instantly, only when needed, through a pay-as-you-go approach. Users pay strictly for what they consume – whether by the minute, mile, print, kilowatt-hour, or other unit of usage.
Examples: Uber provides users with on-demand ride services, enabling them to pay only for what they need when they need it (2009–present). AWS (Amazon Web Services) offers businesses scalable cloud computing power on demand (2006–present). Zipcar enables users to access vehicles on demand, booking by the hour or day and paying only for the time used (2000–present).
The Product-as-a-Service model. Allows customers to pay for usage – such as hours of operation, units consumed, or cycles completed – rather than buying the product outright. The service provider supplies the asset and remains responsible for maintaining and supporting it.
Examples: Xerox Managed Print Services enables organisations to pay per print/copy, with Xerox providing, maintaining, and servicing the printers while retaining responsibility for uptime and consumables (2000s–present). HP Instant Ink allows customers to pay based on the number of pages printed, with HP supplying ink automatically and managing the service – while the printer remains the customer’s device (2013–present).
The Performance-as-a-Service model (a.k.a. performance-based contracting). Provides access to high-value solutions without ownership responsibilities, with payment tied to measurable outcomes such as engine uptime, throughput, energy savings, or system availability.
Examples: Rolls-Royce’s TotalCare service (formerly know as Power-by-the-Hour) removes the burden of engine maintenance from airlines and other customers by actively managing engines throughout their lifecycle to ensure maximum flying availability (1962–present). Schindler’s ElevateMe offers performance-based contracts for elevator systems, billing building owners based on uptime and operational metrics to ensure reliability and minimize downtime (2015–present). Signify (formerly Phillips Lighting) offers Lighting-as-a-Service, helping municipalities and businesses achieve energy-efficient lighting with fees linked to energy savings and performance (2014–present).
Resource pooling. Brings together groups of people or businesses to share or jointly access resources. Through collaboration, these groups can collectively strengthen their bargaining power to secure preferential treatment or negotiate more favorable terms.
Examples: Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) brings together individuals who pledge to support a farm, effectively turning it onto a shared community resource (originated in the 1960s). Gartner Peer Community facilitates peer-to-peer networking, knowledge sharing, and collaboration among industry professionals, enabling the exchange of best practices and actionable insights (2000–present). Community solar projects enable individuals or businesses to co-invest in shared solar installations, pooling resources to generate renewable energy and reduce energy costs (originated in early 2000s).
The freemium model. Offers a core set of features for free, with paid upgrades unlocking additional capabilities – often including expanded access for multiple users, such as teams or households.
Examples: Spotify Family Plan provides premium music streaming for multiple household members, allowing each person to maintain their own playlists and recommendations (2014–present). Google Workspace (formerly G Suite) enables real-time collaboration, with paid plans offering additional storage, advanced features, and increased user capacity (2020–present). Zoom offers free video conferencing, with paid options for hosting larger meetings and unlocking advanced collaboration tools (2011–present).
Fractionalized ownership. Allows individuals or businesses to co-own high-value assets, sharing the costs, benefits, and responsibilities of ownership.
Note: While not strictly an example of Access Over Ownership, fractionalized ownership aligns closely with its principles.
Examples: NetJets allows clients to purchase a share in an aircraft, granting them access to private jet services without the full cost of ownership (1986–present). Boatsetter offers fractional ownership of boats, allowing co-owners to share costs and access while reducing individual expenses (2012–present). Pacaso facilitates co-ownership of luxury vacation homes, allowing multiple buyers to share costs, usage, and maintenance through a professionally managed model that streamlines the ownership experience (2020–present).
Note: Dynamic pricing is not a standalone service model but operates as a mechanism within many models, adjusting prices in real-time based on factors such as demand, availability, usage patterns, or market conditions. Dynamic pricing helps businesses respond dynamically to market fluctuations and make the best use of available resources.
Benefits
Democratizes/expands access to high-value assets and resources by improving accessibility, affordability, and usability
Removes the burdens of ownership, including upfront investment, storage, maintenance, repairs, upgrades, and disposal
Provides flexibility and freedom to adjust, scale, or discontinue usage/consumption as needs change over time
Aligns with the trend of prioritizing experiences over possessions
Drives differentiation beyond product features and price
Monetizes underutilized assets or resources, turning them into revenue-generating opportunities
Creates resilient, recurring revenue streams
Builds long-term relationships and increases customer lifetime value (CLV)
Fosters a sense of community by connecting users who share similar needs or values
Reduces demand for new production (of tangible goods)
Reduces environmental impact (see my blog post on the Circularity > Linearity strategy)
Encourages innovation in value creation, value co-creation, and value facilitation (see my blog post Get the balance right! • 2)
The Solutions Over Products principle will be covered in the next blog post.
References
Bau, R. (2006). Design av tjänster och upplevelser [Design for services and experiences]. Part of Executive education in Design Management [unpublished training material]. Berghs School of Communication.
Bau, R. (2010, December). Ten strategy paradoxes in service Innovation and design. Paper presented at ServDes 2010 (Service Design and Innovation Conference), Linköping, Sweden.
Bau, R. (2011, December). Strategy paradoxes in service innovation and design. In: Cai et al. (Eds.), Design Management: Toward a new era of innovation. Proceedings from the 2011 Tsinghua-DMI International Design Management Symposium, Hong Kong, China. IDMA.
Bau, R. (2014). Sharing & caring across generations. Breakout session at Service Design Global Conference, Stockholm, Sweden. [Unpublished]
Bau, R. (2015). Thinking services instead of products. In: Service Design Boot Camp, Day 1 [unpublished training material]. Veryday.
Botsman, R & Rogers, R. (2010). What’s mine is yours: The rise of collaborative consumption. HarperCollins.
Buczynski, B. (2013). Sharing is good. How to save money, time and resources through collaborative consumption. New Society Publishers.
Gassman, O., Frankenberger, K. & Csik, M. (2014). The business model navigator. FT Publishing.
Jégou, F. & Manzini, E. (2008). Collaborative services: Social innovation and design for sustainability. Edizioni POLI.design.
Wirtz, J. & Lovelock, C. (2016). Services marketing: People, technology, strategy (8th ed.). World Scientific Publishing.
